1. Hasty Generalizations are based on atypical, irrelevant, or inaccurate evidence.
Example:
Of course our students are physically fit; just look at the success of our sports teams this year.
2.Faulty Cause And Effect (Post Hoc) is the result of assuming that because B follows A, A must be the cause of B.
Example:
Tourism in this city started to decline right after Mayor Sctt was elected. To save our tourist industry, let’s replace her now!
3. Reductive Reasoning reduces a complex effect to a single cause.
Example:
People who want to be healthy should eat turnips. My Aunt Alice loved turnips, and she lived to be ninety four.
4. False Analogies occur when one overlooks the fact that two things being compared are more different than they
are similar.
Example:
Why am I required to take certain courses before I can graduate from this university? No one requires me to buy certain groceries before I can leave the supermarket.
5. Begging (Avoiding) the Question occurs when one assumes as true the very point he or she is arguing.
Example:
Improving public transportation in this city won’t solve highway congestion. Even if public transportation is clean, safe, and efficient, people will still prefer to use their cars.
6. Circular Reasoning occurs when the argument merely restates the conclusion it was meant to support.
Example:
The minister is such a good person because she is so virtuous.
7. Equivocation involves using a term in a completely different way than one’s opponent uses it.
Example:
Why, of course the Central Intelligence Agency wants to know what kind of grades my children get! Otherwise, it wouldn’t be called an intelligence agency, would it?
8. Ad Hominem Arguments attack the opponent rather than his or her argument. (Ad hominem literally means” against the person.”)
Example:
Senator Jones’ bill on gun control should not be taken seriously; after all, this is the same man who has had at least five extramarital affairs.
9. False Either/Or Arguments assume that only two alternatives exist in a given situation.
Example:
The case is clear: either we support the death penalty or we allow crime to run rampant.
10. Band Wagon Appeals suggest that one should accept something because it is popular; that is, everyone else has”hopped on the bandwagon.”
Example:
A recent poll showed that seventy percent of the American public believes emissions requirements on automobiles have gone too far; therefore, these laws are unreasonable and should be repealed.
11. Non Sequitur occur when one fails to show clear connections between his premise (starting point) and conclusion.
(Non sequitur literally means ”it does not follow.”)
Example:
Maria loved college, so I’m sure she will make an excellent teacher
